by Anna Gotra (Shestopalova) and Alexander Vijaya
This article is a historical analysis of gomukhasana pose, its references and descriptions in different yogic primary sources in various historical periods. Originally we used the bibliography in the book entitled “Encyclopaedia of Traditional Asanas” by M. Gharote which contains references or descriptions of this pose. We revised this list and collected references and descriptions in all primary sources which we could obtain. Some texts are obtained and the information about the asana in them is thoroughly studied and some texts are not in public domain or due to some reason we could not procure them and study the information. In the latter case we completely relied upon the data and conclusions in the book “Encyclopaedia of Traditional Asanas”. The information in available texts was collected in Sanskrit, English and in other available languages. Some texts are written in a mixture of different Indian languages. We relied upon “Encyclopaedia of Traditional Asanas” in their translations. We found texts which are not mentioned in “Encyclopaedia of Traditional Asanas” but which contain references to gomukhasana. All collected data is presented in the form of a table with dates, primary source names, and commentaries. An analysis of the collected data is presented after the table.
Descriptive table of gomukhasana pose (and poses similar to it)
| Century | Primary source name | Commentary |
| Prahlad Divanji: between the second century BCE and fourth century CEDivanji: prior to 4th c. but after 500 BCE and 400 CEA. G. Mohan: before the 4th century CEDavid White: between the 10th and 12th centuriesRam Shankar Bhattacharya: about the 13th or 14th century CE (Pune manuscript)Dominik Wujastyk: one manuscript early 10th-century or late 9th-century and the other 1024 CE(Wikipedia) | Yoga-Yājñavalkya | Only the position of legs is described. (Put) left ankle/back part (?) to the right thigh, and the right to the left. It is only mentioned that one should grasp crosswise (it is not clear which pose is referred to when the position of arms is described. Gomukhasana or the next pose). |
| Gavin Flood: around 100 BCE to 300 CE.Georg Feuerstein: post-dates the Yogasutras. (Wikipedia) | Jābāladarśana Upanishad (Darśana Upanishad) | Only the position of legs is described. (Put) the left ankle to the right thigh, and the right to the left |
| Gavin Flood : 100 BCE to 300 CE. Roy Eugene Davis: pre-dates the Yogasutras, Georg Feuerstein post-dates the Yogasutras.Thomas McEvilley: chronology of the text is uncertain, but it was probably composed around the time of Dhyanabindu Upanishad and before Hatha Yoga Pradipka, Kaulajnananirnaya and Shiva Samhita. (Wikipedia) | Śāṇḍilya Upaniṣad | Only the position of legs is described. (Put) the left ankle to the right thigh, and the right to the left |
| Gavin Flood: early 1st-millennium CE.Raman: after the 10th century, Mikel Burley: date of the text is uncertain. Alain Daniélou date of the text is uncertain. (Wikipedia) | Triśikhi-brāhmaṇa Upaniṣad | Only the position of legs is described. (Put) the left ankle to the right thigh, and the right to the left |
| Was composed possibly over several centuries within the 1st millennium CE, after 300 CE.(Wikipedia) | Ahirbudhnya Saṃhitā | Asana description is not clear. It is recommended to grasp big toes from behind with arms crossed. The description of legs is ambiguous (whether one needs to sit between heels or one should place one knee over the other and ankles by hips). |
| Written either in the 6th century CE or post 10th century | Tirumantiram (by Tirumular) | Tamil poetic work. One of the main sacred texts of Nandinatha Sampradaya (Shaiva-Siddhanta). Only the name of the asana is mentioned without any description. . |
| XI century | Siddhanta Sekhara (kamya-kanda) | Sanskrit astronomical work. Mentioned in Encyclopaedia of Traditional Asanas. We could not find this asana ourselves in the text and we rely on this book |
| Shastri: after the 10th-centuryRocher: 11th or 12th-centuryEstimates for different sections of the text range from 7th to the 12th-century (Wikipedia) | Kālikā Purāṇa | The pose is mentioned in the list of “best poses for deity worship”. Not described how to do it. |
| XII century (completed in 1129 CE by Someshvara III) (Wikipedia) | Mānasollāsa | It is an encyclopedic work covering topics such as polity, governance, ethics, economics, astronomy, astrology, rhetoric, veterinary medicine, horticulture, perfumes, food, architecture, games, painting, poetry, dance and music. We could not find gomukhasana in the text. Encyclopaedia of Traditional Asanas says that Manasollasa places svastika, gomukha, padma and hamsasana in the category of brahmasanas. This texts separates different asanas into five groups, namely, brahma, vaishnava, raudra, shakta, and shaiva. |
| XIII century (Wikipedia) | Vāsiṣṭha Saṁhitā | Only the position of legs is described |
| ~XIV century (Andrew Safronov)(https://en.yoga-sutra.org/2013/) | Yoga-Siddhanta-Chandrika | Only the position of legs is described (As in Upanishads and Hatha-Yoga-Pradipika) |
| XV century (Wikipedia) | Haṭhayogapradīpikā | Only the position of legs is described. (Put) the left ankle to the right thigh, and the right to the left |
| XV century | Haṭhayogapradīpikā (10 chapters) | Only the position of legs is described. (Put) the left ankle to the right thigh, and the right to the left |
| (?) XV century | Haṭhayogapradīpikā (manuscript). Consists of 6 chapters. Deposited in Rajasthan (Jodhpur). | Encyclopaedia of Traditional Asanas states that the manuscript enjoins to take hold of opposite shoulders with crossed arms placed overhead. The Encyclopaedia does not mention the position of legs. Their position is probably the same as in other texts of Haṭhayogapradīpikā |
| post XV century | Haṭhayogapradīpikā-vṛttia commentary on Haṭhayogapradīpikā by Svami Bhojatmaja | Written in Marathi. Translation into English is not yet available. Two poses are mentioned: gomukhasana and virasana. |
| XVI century (https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/godavaramishra) | Yogacintāmaṇī (by Godāvaramiśra), manuscript 220/1882-83, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. | We could not obtain this text. According to the Encyclopaedia of Traditional Asanas only the position of legs is described. |
| XVII century (https://www.theluminescent.org/2019/08/118-asanas-of-mid-17th-century.html) | Yogacintāmaṇī (by Shivananda Sarasvati) | We could not obtain this text. According to the Encyclopaedia of Traditional Asanas only the position of legs is described. (Put) the left ankle to the right thigh, and the right to the left |
| XVII century | yuktabhavadeva | We do not have this text on hand. According to ETA only the position of legs is described. (Put) the left ankle to the right thigh, and the right to the left |
| XVII century | haṭha-saṅketa-candrikā | Only the position of legs is described. Therapeutic effects are described. |
| XVII century (Wikipedia) | haṭha ratnāvalī | Only the position of legs is described. |
| XVII century (Wikipedia) | gheraṇḍa saṃhitā | The description differs: one should place one’s feet by the buttocks, without any explanation as to by which hip which foot should be placed. (Modern Virasana fits this gomukhasana description). It is also said that one should keep one’s body upright. |
| Some scholars: XVII century James Mallinson : between 1300 and 1500 CE(Wikipedia) | siva-saṃhitā | Only the name of the pose is mentioned in the context of obstacles. |
| about XVIII century (Meaning of haṭha in Early Haṭhayoga by Jason Birch) | Hatha-tattva-kaumudi from Chambers Library(there are 4 manuscripts, some copies, others are very different). | ETA states that in the manuscript of HTK from the Chambers Library there is a gomukhasana description where only the position of legs is described (one knee over the other and feet by hips). We could not obtain this manuscript and rely on ETA. In the critical edition of HTK based on three manuscript this pose is not present. |
| XVIII century | jyotsna-tika (commentary on Hatha Yoga pradipika). | Only the position of legs is described. |
| XVIII century, 1737 (Wikipedia) | Joga Pradīpikā | The text is written in a mixture of Hindi, Braj Bhasa, Khari Boli and forms close to SanskritThis pose is called sivasana. |
| XVIII century, 1737 (Wikipedia) | Joga Pradīpikā | The text is written in a mixture of Hindi, Braj Bhasa, Khari Boli and forms close to Sanskrit. The pose is called vrsapati-asanaAccording to ETA the position of legs in this pose resembles gomukhasana pose description in other texts. Also this text mentions that one should place one’s hands over one’s knees. One should focus one’s eyesight on the tip of one’s nose. |
| XVIII century, 1737 (Wikipedia) | Joga Pradīpikā (the book was published by M.L. Gharote in 1999). 84 asanas are described, many of which are similar to asanas in the text of yoga-asanamala-sachitra.The text is written by Jayatarama. | The text is written in a mixture of Hindi, Braj Bhasa, Khari Boli and forms close to Sanskrit. A pose which resembles gomukhasana is called datta-digambara-asana According to ETA the pose description goes as follows: while sitting, bring right leg over the left thigh and place the foot touching the ground. Bring the left foot on the right side and place its heel close to the buttock. Place hands on feet and hold them firmly. Sit straight and direct the gaze in between the eyebrows. If one practices pranayama in this posture, one gets rid of vata vitiation. |
| XVIII century | yoga-asanamala-sachitraWritten by Jayatarama,Copied with you by Sobharama in 1789 (1846 AD samvat). | The text is written in a mixture of Hindi, Braj Bhasa, Khari Boli and forms close to Sanskrit. A pose which resembles gomukhasana is called datta-digambara-asana According to ETA the pose description goes as follows: while sitting, bring the right leg over the left thigh and place the foot touching the ground. Bring the left foot on the right side and place its heel close to the buttock. Place hands on feet and hold them firmly. Sit straight and direct the gaze in between the eyebrows. If one practices pranayama in this posture, one gets rid of vata vitiation. |
| XVIII century (1744) | asana yoga grantha | A pose similar to gomukhasana is described in Asana-Yoga-Grantha (19c). In its description we rely on the ETA. The description is as follows:While sitting, bend the right leg in the knee and place its foot on the left side of the hip. Similarly, bend the left leg in the knee and place its foot on the right side of the hip. This brings the knees one over the other. Touch the tips of the fingers of the right hand to the middle joints of left fingers. Place hands supine on the genitals and direct the gaze between the eyebrows.The arrangement of the legs here resembles that of gomukhasana. This practice cools down the bodily heat. The text Yoga-Asana-Mala-Sachitra (20c) also describes this pose in the same way. |
| XVIII century | yoga asanamala sachitra | While sitting, bend the right leg in the knee and place its foot on the left side of the hip. Similarly, bend the left leg in the knee and place its foot on the right side of the hip. This brings the knees one over the other. Touch the tips of the fingers of the right hand to the middle joints of left fingers. Place hands supine on the genitals and direct the gaze between the eyebrows.The arrangement of the legs here resembles that of gomukhasana. This practice cools down the bodily heat. It is the description of durvasasana from the ETA. The ETA states that the text Asana-Yoga-Grantha (19c) describes it also as such. |
| XIX century | Śrītattvanidhi | The pose is called dhenukasana. The text is in Kannada. We do not have any translation of the text. According to the ETA, the description is as follows, place the right ankle at the left side of the buttocks and similarly arrange the left ankle on the right side and cross the knees one over the other. Both palms are placed on the left thigh. |
| XIX century | A figurine from the Central Museum of Jaipur (Jaipur Central Museum)-7145 | The figurine looks like a gomukhasana pose. One can describe the figurine as follows: Place the right knee over the left, place your ankles by your hips. Grab the big toes without crossing the hands. The ETA considers that this figurine resembles datta-digambara-asana from yoga-asana-mala-sacitra (we do not have this text). |
| XIX century | A figurine from the Central Museum of Jaipur (Jaipur Central Museum)-7190 | Asana name contains gomukha. Adhara-gomukhasana. Place one foot under the opposite buttock and place the other foot on the respective shoulder. Join your palms in front of your chest. |
| XIX century (1899) | sacitra cauryayasin asane | The text is in Marathi. We do not have a translation. The pose is called kurmasana. According to the ETA its description looks similar to the text Yogasanam (Sachitra). |
| circa XIX century | yogasanam (sacitra) | According to the ETA as per the illustration in yogasanam (sachitra) the feet are kept inverted under the anus and hands are arranged on hips. Yoga can find this text here https://www.ym-kdham.in/article.asp?issn=0044-0507;year=2014;volume=46;issue=1;spage=43;epage=55;aulast=Satapathy |
| circa XIX century | yogasanam (sacitra) | This text has the pose called dakshina-caturamsha-padasana. We do not have this text. We found a picture of this asana in the ETA. According to the picture the description is as follows. The bent right knee is placed over the bent left knee. Hands are placed over the upper part of the belly by interlocking fingers. The left foot is kept under the right buttock. Eyes are gazing at the nose. |
| circa XX century | Shiva yoga deepika by Sadashiva Yogishvara | The name of the pose is mentioned in the context of the “10 best poses”, There is no description. |
| XX century | Yoga Rahasya, by T. Krishnamacharya | Only the name of the asana is mentioned |
| XX century | Shri yoga kaustubha | The text is in Gujarati. We do not have the translation yet. The ETA considers this gomukhasana description to be with one’s hands joined behind one’s back. Another variant of this pose without joining one’s hands the ETA also considers belonging to the text. |
| XX century | Kiranatika | In this text the pose is called kurmasana and gomukhasana. The description looks similar to the texts Yogasanam (sachitra) and Sachitra cauryayasin asane. |
| XX century | Sacitra Vyavaharika Yoga | We do not have this text. The ETA considers the description of this pose to be with one’s hands joined behind one’s back |
| XX century | Brihad Yoga Sopana, author Pt. Ram Naresh Mishra Shastri | Probably one of the first primary sources which describes the position of one’s hands behind one’s back. The right arm is behind the back from above, and the left is below. Clasp the index fingers of both hands. |
| XX century | Yoga-sopāna, author Yogi Narayana Ghamande | The description itself is in Sanskrit and the commentary is in Marathi. The description does not have any information about one’s hands. Probably the description is in the commentary. The illustration to the text demonstrates one’s hands joined behind the back and most likely one’s index fingers clasped. The right elbow is above one’s shoulder and the left elbow is below. |
| XX century, 1967 | Navnath 84 siddhas, the text is copied from ancient figures in the Jodhpur style (Rajasthan). | The text contains sanakasana pose which looks like gomukhasana. The right foot is one the left and the left is on the right. One knee over the other. One should grasp one’s toes and sit straight. We could not find this text from available sources so we rely on the ETA. |
| XX century, 1967 | Navnath 84 siddhas, the text is copied from ancient figures in the Jodhpur style (Rajasthan). | Pose called carpati-asana looks like gomukhasana. Based on the illustration given in the text it can be as follows: place the left ankle by the side of the left hip. Place one knee over the other. Place the hands on the hips with palms turned upwards.We could only find the image of this pose in the ETA. We could not find the text itself. |
| XX century, 1967 | Navnath 84 siddhas, the text is copied from ancient figures in the Jodhpur style (Rajasthan). | According to the ETA govindasana described in the text looks like gomukhasana. According to the image from the text in the ETA the pose can be described as follows: place the left foot on the right side of the hip, thus bringing the knees one over the other and the hands are kept on the knees or thighs. |
| XX century | Yoga-marga-pradipa | We could only find part of the text in the public domain but there are no asanas in this part. So with this text we rely on the ETA. According to the ETA only the position of legs is described (the right foot is by the right hip, and the left by the right) |
| XX century | The Books of Sivananda Swami Saraswati (1887-1963). | Shivananda wrote a lot of books. According to Wikipedia he wrote 296 books. In the book “Yoga Asanas” a comprehensive description of gomukhasana is given with its benefits and variations. The description can be shortened to this: the left heel is under the left part of the anus and the right foot by the left hip. The position of hands is described (modern popular version): one should interlock one’s index fingers behind one’s back. Variations of the pose: changing of the position of one’s arms and legs (the left and the right side), one’s hands are in front of one’s chest or can be placed on one’s knees |
| XX century | Books by Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (1888-1989). | Three books are authored by Krislnamacarya: Yoga Rahasya (1965), Yoga Makaranda (1934) and Yogasanagalu (1941). Gomukhasana is mentioned in Yoga Rahasya. Gomukhasana in this text does not have any elaborate description. In 2.12 it is written: in the following shlokas there is an asana list, which one rarely can find in other texts. Illustrations to the poses are given at the end of the chapter. According to the image: the right foot by the left hip and the left by the right (the left knee over the right). Hands are placed on one’s feet. The pose itself is mentioned in 2.16. A part of Yogasanagalu where the pose is mentioned at this time is not yet translated. Probably there will be the description of or a reference to the pose.An elaborate description of gomukhasana was later given by the students of Krishnamacarya including B.K.S. Iyengar, Pattabhi Jois etc. |
| XX century | Books by B.K.S.Iyengar (1918-2014), a disciple of Krishnamacharya. The founder of the Iyengar Yoga school | The author of about 30 books. An elaborate description of this asana can be found in some of his books with different variations. An often found description in Iyengar’s books of the asana implies to have one’s knees one over the other and heels under the buttocks rather than by one’s hips. There is an arm position description: hands are interlocked behind one’s back. The pose is done on both sides. Different variations of arms can be found in different books (for example arms in tadasana). Therapeutic effects, contraindications and mistakes in the asana are described. |
| ??? century | Asana-namani (manuscript)-50, i the Museum of Maharaja Sawai Mansingh II, in Jaipur, Rajasthan | The text is not full. It only mentions 500 asanas but only 57 asanas have a description in the Rajasthani language. We could not find the text in public domain. According to the ETA one should grab hold of the opposite shoulders with one’s hands crossed and fixed above the head. Nothing is said about the legs. According to the illustration in the ETA the position of the legs is usual. |
| ??? century | Joga-manjari (manuscript) 6543, located at Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute. | We could not find the text in the public domain. According to the ETA the position of one’s legs is given (the right foot is by the left hip, and the left by the right) |
| ??? century | asanani (manuscript). Located in the Library of Sampurnananda Sanskrit University, Benares. | We could not find the text in the public domain. According to the ETA the position of the legs is described (the right foot by the left hip and the left by the right) |
| ??? century | asana-namani (manuscript)-55.This manuscript is kept in the Maharaja Sawai Mansingh (II) Museum in Jaipur. | We could not obtain the text in the public domain. According to the ETA mathana-asana looks like gomukhasana. The right ankle by the left hip and the left by the right. The hands are on one’s knees and the gaze is concentrated on one’s nose. |
| later than XIII-XIV centuries | yogarnava There are 2 works with this name, one is yogic, the other is jyotish (astronomy and astrology). There are two manuscripts on yoga practice: one is written in Sanskrit in Devanagari script, located in the Government Oriental Manuscript Library, Chennai. The script of the second manuscript is Malayam, It is located in the Oriental Research Institute, in Trivandrum. | We do not have any information about this text. There are two texts by this name and we do not have the information to which text the ETA is referring. The ETA does not have any information about the text. According to the ETA, the right foot is placed by the left hip and the left by the right. The hands are over the knees. |
| ??? century | hatha yoga samhita | This text is mentioned in the bibliography part of the ETA. But there is no commentary as to what this text is and where it can be found. We could not find it in the public domain. The ETA says that gomukhasana is mentioned there: the right foot is by the left hip and the left by the right, the hands are placed over the knees. |
| ??? century | asana nirupana (manuscript) | Yoga-tantram, Asana-nirupana, 79/ K/ 1292, Pustak Prakash, Jodhpur. We could not find anything more specific about this text. The ETA says the description is as follows: the right foot is by the left hip and the left by the right. |
| our days, XXI century | The Internet, yoga centers | A seated posture is meant by gomukhasana nowadays. It is done as follows: place the left foot by the right hip and the left foot by the right hip (one knee is over the other). Arms are behind one’s back with hands interlocked (for example, the right elbow is pointed up and the left down). Also there are different variations of this pose. The most simple variation in which one leg is straight and the other is as in the classical variant, that is the variant which is available to anyone. And there are more advanced variations with different arm positions, twists, bends. Different variations are given by different teachers as they see it and as practitioners are available to do them. |
Table analysis
Gomukhasana pose is ancient. The earliest reference to it can be found in the Upanishads (Yoga-Upanishads). The time period of their composition ranges from the 2nd c. BC to the 4th c. AD. Jabala-darshana-upanishad/ Darshana-upanishad, shandilya-upanishad (1c. BC — 3c. AD or after the Yoga-Sutras (4c. BC- 4c. AD), trishikhi-brahmanopanishad (1c. BC-10c. AD or after 10c. AD). In these texts only the position of legs is described: one should place one’s left ankles to one’s right hip, and the right to the left. Nothing is said about one’s arms.
There is a text entitled Yoga-yajnyavalkya but the period of composition ranges over a large time period: from the 2nd c. BC to 4th c. AD or from the 10th c. AD to the 15th c. AD. In this text only the position of one’s legs is described: one should place the left ankle/the back part(?) to the right hip, and the right to the left. It is mentioned that one should grab one’s toes crosswise. It is not clear what verse this passage about hands is referring to.
Upto the 10th c. AD two texts can be found: Ahirbudhnya-samhita and Tirumantiram.
Ahirbudhnya-samhita (4c. AD and later). An unclear description of this pose is given in this text. It is recommended to hold one’s toes with one’s arms crossed behind the back. This asana description differs a lot from other descriptions in other texts, wherein the description is almost identical. The description of this asana in this text is ambiguous. One can sit between one’s heels or one can sit with one’s knees placed one over the other and one’s ankles by one’s hips. It is a feature of the Sanskrit language that descriptions are sometimes too concise and therefore ambiguous. So without the teacher or an asana image sometimes it is not possible to understand what pose is meant.
Tirumantiram (either the 6th c. AD or later than the 10th c. AD). A Tamil poetical work. The main sacred text in the line of Nandi-natha-sampradaya (Shaiva-siddhanta)). Several poses are mentioned but they are not described. Gomukhasana is also mentioned (as one of the seven ancient and great poses).
As per the data we currently have the pose is referenced 48 times in different texts in different periods. Sometimes texts are connected to each other in such a way that later texts copy descriptions from earlier texts. All these texts describe similarly the position of the legs (with the exception of the Ahirbudhnya-samhita with its ambiguous description). The description that pertains to most of the texts is as follows: place the left ankle to the right hip and the right ankle to the left. This is not always the case for different poses. For example, different poses are meant by pashchimottanasana (seated, standing and supine poses depending on the text)
In some texts gomukhasana is mentioned but not described:
Kalikapurana (11-12 cc. or some parts of the text 7-12 cc.), Manasollasa (12c according to the ETA), Shiva-Samhita 17c. (or 14-16cc.) — gomukhasana is mentioned in the context of obstacles in the practice of yoga, Shiva-Yoga-Dipika probably 20 cc., Yoga-Rahasya by Krishnamacharya 20 cc.
Another position of legs: In Ahirbudhnya-samhita (4 c. or later) the position of legs is ambiguous. One should sit between one’s heels or one should place one knee over the other and one’s ankles by one’s hips. The passage about gomukhasana in Ahirbudhnya-Samhita in Sanskrit differs significantly from other Sanskrit texts with the description of this pose
Eyesight position is mentioned: Joga-pradipika, a text of the 18 century describes a pose called sivasana and mentions the importance of an unwavering eyesight. Possibly, the position of one’s legs does not coincide with the usual description of gomukhasana.
There is the word “gomukhasana” but the pose itself is different. There is a figurine from the Jaipur Central Museum-7190 (19 century) by the name adhara-gomukhasana.
Therapeutic effects from the asana are mentioned in several texts: Hatha-Sanketa-Chandrika (17 c.) mentions therapeutic effects from the gomukhasana pose. “…It gives control over apana-vayu through the (proper) application of mulabandha. Overcomes fistula and piles.
The text entitled Joga-Pradipika (1737) gives the following description of the pose datta-digambara-asana: “… If pranayama is practiced in this pose then the practitioner is alleviated from vata vitiation”.
In the text yoga-asanamala-sacitra (1789) it is said about durvasa-asana “… removes excessive bodily heat”.
Swami Shivananda Sarasvati (1887-1963) in the book “Yoga Asanas” describes the benefit from gomukhasana in the following way: “This asana removes rheumatism in the legs, sciatIca, piles or hemorrhoids , neuralgia of the legs and thighs, indigestion, dyspepsia, muscular pain in the back, and sprain in the forearms. This helps in maintaining brahmacharya and good health. Mula Bandha comes by itself and can be kept up with ease. Hence, this Asana is suitable for the practice of pranayama. Ordinarily you can sit at all times in this Asana for long meditation also . Lean persons with thin thighs and legs will like this Asana very much. Yogi Swami Svarupananda of Jwalapur, Haridwar; was a votary of this Asana. He used to sit always in this Asana alone. This was his favorite Asana. If you find a little congestion (accumulation) of blood in the thighs and legs, massage or shampoo the legs and thighs with your hands as soon as you release the Asana. There is also another variety of Gomukhasana. When you do this variety, raise the elbow of the left hand upwards and the fingers at the back. Take the right hand to the back, raise the index-finger up as far as you can and form a hook of the index-fingers.
B.K.S. Iyengar (1918-2014) in his book “Yoga Dipika” gives the benefits of this pose: “The pose cures cramp in the legs and makes the leg muscles elastic. The chest is well expanded and the back becomes erect. The shoulder joints move freely and the latissimus dorsi arc is fully extended.”
The closer a text is to our times the more elaborate the description of a pose is. More anatomical details and therapeutic effects from a certain pose are given. It is important to notice that science and medicine evolve and progress, the influence of different poses on the human body is studied and one should maintain critical thinking when we get results from this research taking into consideration the design and quality of the research. Definitely it is important to notice that regular and various types of physical activity, including yoga practice, beneficially influence human health. If one has problems with one’s health one should first seek medical care and not totally rely on the physical exercises of yoga.
In some texts the pose described is similar to gomukhasana but the name is different: Joga-pradipika (18 c.), according to the ETA — sivasana, vrisapati-asana and datta-digambara-asana. Yogasana-mala-sacitra (18c.): datta-digambara-asana. Asana-yoga-grantha (18c. (1744)), according to the ETA durvasasana. Yoga-asana-mala-sacitra (18c.), according to the ETA durvasasana. Shri Tattva Nidhi (19c.) dhenukasana. A figurine from Jaipur Central Museum- 7145 — datta-digambara-asana (19c.). Yogasanam (sacitra) (circa 19c) according to the ETA dakshina-caturamsha-padasana. Kirana-tika (20c.) the pose is called kurmasana and gomukhasana. 9 nathas and 84 siddhas (20c. 1967 (acc. to the ETA))- sanakasana, charpati-asana and govindasana. Asana-namani (manuscript) — 55 (dates are unknown to us at the moment) according to the ETA — mathana-asana.
The position of hands (arms) is described in the following texts: Yoga-yajnavalkya (ed. Divanji (from the 2nd c. BC to 4th c. AD or 10-15cc.)) gives a passage about arms and it is not clear which asana is referred to here. If it is gomukhasana then one should grab one’s toes crosswise.
In the text Ahirbudhnya-samhita (4c. and later) it is recommended to hold one’s big toes, with arms crossed behind the back. The description of the asana is ambiguous, the text in Sanskrit differs significantly from all other early descriptions of this pose.
The text Hatha-pradipika (manuscript) from 6 chapters (supposedly 15c.). According to the ETA this text gives the following description of arms: one should take hold of one’s opposite shoulders crossed and fixed above the head.
Yoga-arnava (later than 13-14cc.) according to the ETA describes gomukhasana where one should place one’s hands on one’s knees.
Joga-pradipika (18c.) describes a pose similar to gomukhasana which is called vrisapati-asana. According to the ETA one should place one’s hands on one’s knees.
Joga-pradipika (18c. — 1737). According to the ETA this text gives the following description of one’s arms: one should place one’s hands on one’s feet and hold them tight.
In Yoga-asanamala-sachitra (18c.) a pose similar to gomukhasana is described. Its name is datta-digambara-asana. One should take hold of one’s big toes (according to the ETA one should grab hold of one’s feet).
Asana-yoga-grantha (18c. (1744)) describes a pose similar to gomukhasana which is called durvasa-asana. The description is given according to the ETA. One should touch the tips of one’s fingers of the right hand to the middle joints of the left fingers. One should place one’s hands supine on the genitals and one should direct one’s gaze between one’s eyebrows.
The description of the pose in the text Yoga-asanamala-sacitra (18c.) coincides with the description of the pose from the text Asana-yoga-grantha. A pose similar to gomukhasana is described by the name durvasasana. The description is given according to the ETA. It is as follows: one should touch the tips of one’s fingers of the right hand to the middle joints of the left fingers. One should place one’s hands supine on the genitals and one should direct one’s gaze between one’s eyebrows.
Shri-tattva-nidhi (19c.) calls a pose similar to gomukhasana by the name dhenukasana. According to the ETA in this description one should place one’s palms on the left thigh.
There is a figurine of the 19c. in Jaipur Central Museum (7145). A pose is similar to gomukhasana. One should grasp one’s toes with one’s hands.
Yogasanam (sacitra) (circa 19c.) gives the description of a pose similar to gomukhasana which is called dakshina-caturamsha-padasana. In this pose one places one’s hands on the upper part of the belly with one’s fingers interlaced.
In the book “9 nathas and 84 siddhas” (20 c. 1967) a pose which is called sanakasana is described. It is similar to gomukhasana. In it one should grasp one’s toes.
The text “9 nathas and 84 siddhas” (20 c.) describes a pose called charpati-asana, which looks like gomukhasana. According to the picture in the ETA: in it one should place one’s palms on one’s thighs turning them up (or with one’s fingers turned to oneself)
The text “9 nathas and 84 siddhas” (20 c.) describes a pose by the name govindasana which is similar to gomukhasana. One’s hands are placed on one’s legs.
The text by the name asana-namani (manuscript-50) the date of writing of which is not known to us describes the position of one’s hands as per the ETA as follows: one should grab hold of one’s shoulders with one’s arms crossed and fixed above one’s head.
Asana-namani (manuscript-55) (date is unknown to us) describes a pose similar to gomukhasana by the name mathanasana. In it one should place one’s hands on one’s knees.
Hatha-yoga-samhita (the date unknown to us) describes gomukhasana in which one’s hands are on one’s knees as per the ETA.
In the book Yoga-Rahasya (1965) Shri Tirumulai Krishnamacarya (1888-1989) gives gomukhasana pose without any elaborate description (it is mentioned in the list of poses). In the illustration to the pose it can be seen that one should place one’s hands on one’s feet.
In the following texts hands joined behind the back are described. This is the modern popular variation.
Brihad-yoga-sopana describes the following position of hands: The right arm is bent and brought behind the back, while the left arm is brought over the left shoulder. Index fingers are clasped together.
In the text Yoga-sopana the text is in Sanskrit, and the commentary is in Marathi. The text itself does not say anything about the arms, probably the commentary says something about the hands. In the illustration hands are joined behind the back.
Shri-yoga-kaustubha is in Gujarati. The ETA considers this pose description to be with hands joined behind the back. There is another variant of this pose without joining one’s hands. The ETA considers this variation to be belonging to the same text.
We could not find the text Sachitra-Vyavaharika-Yoga in the public domain. According to the ETA gomukhasana is described in this text with one’s hands joined behind one’s back.
Shivananda Swami Saraswati (1887-1963) in the book entitled Yoga Asanas gave an elaborate description of different variations of this pose. The position of one’s hands is described: one should interlock one’s index fingers. Variations of this pose: pose is done on the left and the right side, one’s hands in front of one’s chest or they can be placed on one’s knees.
In the books of B.K.S. Iyengar (1918-2014), a disciple of Krishnamacharya, the position of hands is described as follows: hands are interlocked behind the back. The pose has different variations in different books. For example, the hands from the gomukhasana pose and the body is in tadasana. Description of hands: the right hand is behind the back from above and the left hand is below and the index fingers are interlocked. Or one should interlock one’s fingers behind the back.
The popular version of gomukhasana with one’s hands clasped behind the back appears only in the texts of the 20th century. Almost all yoga practitioners know this pose with this position of hands. We know this type of gomukhasana thanks to yoga teachers and popularizers of yoga in the West in the 20th century.
List of primary sources
The Encyclopaedia of Traditional Asanas ─ Second Edition 2013. Editor-in-Chief: Dr. M. L. Gharote. Editors: Dr. V. K. Jha, Dr. Parimal Devnath, Dr. S. B. Sakhalkar, The Lonavala Yoga Institute (India).
Yoga-Yājñavalkya ─ Edited by Sri Prahlad C. Divanji, M.A., LL.M., Editor, siddhantabindu with English Translation, Notes, Introduction etc., and Author, Critical Word-Index to the Bhagavadgita, (1954).
Jābāladarśana Upanishad (Darśana Upanishad) ─ from sanskritdocuments.org. Transliterated by Sunder Hattangadi. Proofread by: Sunder Hattangadi. Latest update: April 15, 2021.
Śāṇḍilya Upaniṣad ─ from sanskritdocuments.org. Transliterated by: Sunder Hattangadi. Proofread by: Sunder Hattangadi. Last updated on Sat 20 Feb 2021.
Śāṇḍilya Upaniṣad — The Yoga-Upanishads with the commentary of Shri Upanishad Brahmayogin, Ed. Shastri, A. Mahadev Adyar Library and Research Center, Adyar, Madras, 1983.
Triśikhi-brāhmaṇa Upaniṣad ─ from sanskritdocuments.org. Transliterated by: Sunder Hattangadi. Proofread by: Sunder Hattangadi. Latest update: Mar. 4, 2000.
Triśikhi-brāhmaṇa Upaniṣad ─ The Yoga-Upanishads with the commentary of Shri Upanishad Brahmayogin, Ed. Shastri, A. Mahadev Adyar Library and Research Center, Adyar, Madras, 1983.
Ahirbudhnya Saṃhitā ─ Ed. Ramanujacharya, MD., Ed. Library and Research Center in the city of Adyar, 1916.
Haṭhayogapradīpikā – By Svatmarama, translated by Shrinivasa Iyangar, proofread by A.A. Ramanathan and Pandit S.V. Subrahmanya Shastri. The Adyar Library and Research Center. The Theosophical Society, Adyar, Madras 20, India, 1972.
Haṭhayogapradīpikā — by Svatmarama (10 chapters) with the commentary of Balakrishna entitled Yoga-Prakashika. Ed. M.L. Gharote & Parimal Devnath. Published by the Lonavala Yoga Institute (India), Lonavala (2001).
gheraṇḍa-saṃhitā — Ed. Swami Digambarji & M. L. Gharote. Publisher Kaivalyadhama S.M.Y.M. Samiti, Lonavala. 1978. It is a critical edition based on 14 manuscripts and 6 printed texts. It describes 32 poses.
Joga Pradīpikā (Joga Pradīpakā) ─ Editor Gharote, M.L. Published by the Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute, Jaipur, 1999. 84 asanas are described here, many of them are similar to those described in Yogasana-Mala (sachitra). Sachitra means with pictures — translator’s note.
Therapeutic References in Traditional Yoga Texts ─ Editors Dr. Manmath M. Ghrarote, Dr. Vijay Kant Jha, Dr. Parimal Devnath. The Lonavala Yoga Institute, India, 2010 (Hatha-Sanketa-Candrika is quoted in this book).
Triśikhi-brāhmaṇa Upaniṣad ─ http://sanskritdocuments.org. Transliterated by Sunder Hattangadi. Proofread by Sunder Hattangadi, 2000.
The Yoga Upanishads ─ translated into English by T.R. Shrinivasa Ayyangar and edited by Pandit S. Subrahmanya Shastri. The Adyar Library. 1938. (The translation into English of Jābāladarśana Upanishad and Śāṇḍilya Upaniṣad is taken from this book.)
Jābāladarśana Upanishad ─ sanskritdocuments.org. Transliterated by Sunder Hattangadi. Proofread by Sunder Hattangadi. April 15, 2021.
Śāṇḍilya Upaniṣad ─ http://sanskritdocuments.org. Transliterated by Sunder Hattangadi. Proofread by Sunder Hattangadi, 2000.
Yoga-Siddhanta-Chandrika ─ by Sri Narayana Tirtha. Editor dr. Vimala Karnatak. Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi.
Vāsiṣṭha Saṁhitā (Yoga Khanda) ─ Revised Edition, Editors & Commentators: Philosophico-Literary Research Department of Kaivaiyadhama. First Publication: August, 1984, Revised Publication: March, 2005.
siva-saṃhitā ─ translated by Rai Bahadur Srisa Chandra Vasu, published by the Panini Office, Bhuvaneshvari Ashrama Bahadurganj, printed by Apurva Krishna Bose at the Indian Press, 1914.
Shiva yoga deepika ─ by Sadashiva Yogishvara. Publisher: Anandashram, 1978.
A Lamp on Śiva’s Yoga: The Unification of Yoga, Ritual, and Devotion in the Fifteenth-Century Śivayogapradīpikā (PhD Prospectus) by Seth Powell, 2018.
Siddhanta Sekhara (kamya-kanda) ─ by Shripati. A Sanskrit Astronomical Work of the 11th century. Calcutta University Press, 1932.
Kālikā Purāṇa ─ Edited and translated by Acharya Mrityunjai Tripathi. Published by Navshakti Prakashan. First Edition 2006.
haṭha ratnāvalī ─ A treatise of hatha yoga of Shrinivasa. Critically edited by Dr. M. L. Gharote, Dr. Parimal Devnath, Dr. Vijay Kant Jha. Published by The Lonavla Yoga Institute, 2019.
jyotsna-tika ─ a commentary on Hatha Yoga Pradipika. Shri Venkateshvar Steam Press, 1952.
Yoga Rahasya ─ Sri Nathamuni, an ancient treatise on yoga as presented by Sri Krishnamacharya, Janus Books Publishing House, A. Sidersky and A. Lappa. Trans. from English into Russian — S.-Pt.: «Exlibris» LLC, 2002.
Yoga Rahasya ─ Presented by T. Krishnamacharya. Translated by T.K.V. Deshikachar. Krishnamachaya Granthamala Series II. Published by Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandiram, 2010.
Yoga-Yājñavalkya ─ translation of the critical edition into Russian, A. N. Rybakov from the website: http://wildyogi.info/ru.html from the book Divanji, Prahlad (1954), Yoga Yajnavalkya: A Treatise on Yoga as Taught by Yogi Yajnavalkya. Bombay, India.
Yoga-Yājñavalkya ─ Translated by A. G. Mohan. Edited by John. J. Ely Ph.D. Published by Ganesh &Co. An imprint of Productivity & Quality Publishing Pvt. Ltd. 38, Thanikachalarn Road. T. Nagar, Madras 600 017, India.
Yoga-Yājñavalkya ─ B.B.R.A. Society Monograph №3. Edited by Shri Prahlad C. Divanji, M.A. LL. M. Bombay, 1954.
Shri yoga kaustubha ─ in Gujarati, by Sharma, Sri Nathurama, Anandashrama, Kathiawad, 6 ed., 1942.
The Yoga Tradition of the Mysore Palace ─ by N. E. Sjoman, Publisher: Abhinav Publications; 2nd edition (June 1, 1999). This is the text where one can find illustrations from Śrītattvanidhi.
Joga Pradīpikā ─ Editor Gharote, M.L. Published by the Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute, Jaipur, 1999. 84 asanas are described in this text, many of them are similar to those described in Yogasana-mala (sachitra).
Haṭhayogapradīpikā-vṛtti ─By Bhojatmaja (Commentary in Marathi), Ed. Gharote, M. L. The Lonavla Yoga Institute (India), Lonavla, 2000.
A brief introduction of «Yogāsana — Jaina»: An unpublished yoga manuscript. Satapathy B., Sahay GS. Yoga Mimamsa, 2014; 46:43-55.
Kiranatika ─ Commentary on the Yogasutras of Patanjali. Vallabhacharya, Sri Krishna, Ed. Jyotish Prakash Press, Vishweshwarganj, Benares.
Ahirbudhnya Saṃhitā ─ Ed. Ramanujacharya, MD., Ed. Library and Research Center in the city of Adyar, 1916.
Āsanas in Clay ─ an article in ‘the Luminescent’ by Jacqueline Hargreaves (images of figurines), 2018.
Brihad Yoga Sopana ─Ed. Shastri, Ram Naresh Mishra, Ed. Sri Venkateswara Steam Press, Mumbai, V.S. 2009.
Yoga-sopāna (Purva-Chatushka) ─ in Marathi by Yogi Narayana Ghamande. Pub. by Tukaram Pundlik Shetye.
Tirumantiram (by Tirumular) — The text is in Tamil with an English translation. The text was downloaded from the website: https://himalayanacademy.com/
The Yoga Asanas ─ by Sivananda Saraswati, published by Swami Jivanmuktananda for the Divine Life Society, Shivanandanagar, and printed by him at the Yoga-Vedanta Forest Academy Press, P.O. Shivanandanagar, Distr. Tehri-Garhwal, Uttaranchal, Himalayas, India. 2004.
Yoga Rahasya ─ Sri Nathamuni. The ancient treatise on yoga as presented by Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya. Publisher “Janus books» A. Sidersky and A. Lappa. Trans. from English into Russian — S.-Pt.: LLC. «Exlibris» LLC, 2002.
Yogasanagalu ─ Third Edition, English translation is of the 1981 ‘New and revised edition’.
Light on Yoga: Yoga Dipika ─ By B. K. S. Iyengar. George Allen and Unwin LTD, 2001.